The Papacy played a central role in Italian politics. Over the centuries, foreign sovereigns (or those who wished to become sovereigns) invaded the Italian States, sometimes at the request of the pope, other times to fight against the pope. The political disagreements between the Italian rulers, together with constant interference by foreign powers (particularly the monarchs of France, Spain and the Holy Roman Empire), led to constant wars and prevented Italian unity for many centuries. Despite this, Italy managed to remain one of the wealthiest, most literate and most culturally-advanced regions of Europe during this entire time period.
The devastating Italian Wars — with foreign powers vying for control of Italy — began in 1494, during the height of the Italian Renaissance, and ended in 1559. This was the political situation of Italy and the Italian States in 1494, at the outbreak of the war:
1. Duchy of Savoy - The cradle of the House of Savoy, the future Italian royal family. In 1494 it was ruled by Carlo Giovanni Amedeo of Savoy and included the duchy proper, the County of Nizza, the Duchy of Aosta and the Principality of Piedmont. Carlo was only six-years-old in 1494, therefore the actual sovereign was his mother Bianca of Montferrato, Regent-Duchess of Savoy. She allowed the French free passage into Italy during the Italian Wars. In future centuries the Dukes of Savoy expanded their domains to include the Marquisate of Saluzzo, the Margraviate of Montferrato, the County of Asti and eventually Sardinia and the Republic of Genoa (except Corsica, which was later occupied by France). By 1720 all their possessions were absorbed into the Kingdom of Sardinia. With the Unification of Italy in 1861, the Kingdom of Sardinia became the Kingdom of Italy.
2. Marquisate of Saluzzo - In 1494 it was ruled by Ludovico II of Saluzzo, who supported the French invasion during the Italian Wars.
3. Margraviate of Montferrato - In 1494 it was ruled by Bonifacio III of Monferrato, who died in the same year just weeks before the French invasion and was succeeded by his pro-French son Guglielmo IX of Montferrato. The latter was also father-in-law of Federico II Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, who later inherited Montferrato through marriage.
5. Republic of Genoa - In 1494 it was ruled by Lodovico di Campofregoso, who was three times doge of Genoa. Together with the Republic of Venice it was one of the two most important Italian maritime republics, dominating maritime trade in the Mediterranean along with Venice for centuries. The Republic of Genoa also included Corsica.
6. Duchy of Milan - In 1494 it was ruled by Gian Galeazzo Sforza, of the House of Sforza. In the same year he died under highly suspicious circumstances at the age of 25 and was succeeded by his cousin Ludovico Sforza; the latter started the Italian Wars by inviting the French to invade Italy, but later regretted his decision and turned against France. One of the largest Italian States; the Duchy also included what is now Italian Switzerland.
7. Prince-Bishoprics of Trento and Bressanone - Two separate ecclesiastical principalities of the Holy Roman Empire; ruled by the Prince-Bishops of Trento and Bressanone. The bishops were endowed with secular power by the Holy Roman Emperor since 1027 and 1179, becoming ex officio temporal princes of their bishoprics. The princely titles were granted by the Holy Roman Emperor (and the ecclesiastical offices were often bestowed upon Germans) so that northeastern Italy could be controlled by men loyal to the Empire. In 1494 Trento was ruled by Ulrich IV von Liechtenstein; German bishops occupied the bishopric for nearly the entire century; Italian bishops did not regain the see until 1514. The territories of Trento previously included most of modern Trentino-Alto Adige, but the lands were usurped by their arch-enemy, the Count of Tyrol. In 1494 Bressanone was ruled by Melchior von Meckau; almost all bishops of this see were German with few exceptions.
8. Free Imperial City of Trieste - Culturally and linguistically Italian; since 1382 it was under the protection of the House of Habsburg, but retained its autonomy with a self-ruling government.
9. County of Gorizia - Culturally and linguistically Italian, but ruled by a German dynasty. In 1494 it was ruled by Leonhard of Gorizia, of the House of Gorizia, who was the last Count of Gorizia. His wife was Paola Gonzaga, daughter of Ludovico III Gonzaga, former Duke of Mantua (1444-1478). With no heir and facing the choice of having to transfer the lands either to the Venetians or the Habsburgs, he signed over the right of inheritance to the Habsburgs, who immediately occupied Gorizia upon his death in 1500.
10. Republic of Venice - One of the most important and most powerful Italian States, which existed for 1100 years (697-1797). In 1497 it was ruled by Doge Agostino Barbarigo, who opposed the French invasion during the Italian Wars. At the time it had one of the largest fleets in the world. The Republic of Venice also included Istria and Dalmatia, culturally and linguistically Italian.
11. Republic of Ragusa - An independent republic in Dalmatia; culturally and linguistically Italian; previously ruled by Venice (1205-1358), but independent since 1358; known as the fifth Italian Maritime Republic after Venice, Genoa, Pisa and Amalfi. The names of the rulers of Ragusa between 1417-1499 have not been recorded, but from 1500-1501 it was ruled by Rector Giunio Andrea de Bobali, of the House of Bobali, and Rector Simone de Benessa, of the House of Benessa.
12. Margravate of Mantua - In 1494 it was ruled by Federico II Gonzaga, of the House of Gonzaga, who later also inherited Montferrato through marriage. Under his rule the city of Mantua rapidly rose in importance as a seat of industry and culture.
13. Duchy of Ferrara, Modena and Reggio - In 1494 it was ruled by Ercole I d'Este, of the House of Este. Modena and Reggio was previously its own duchy (1452-1471), but from 1471 to 1597 Ferrara, Modena and Reggio were united into a single duchy under the House of Este.
14. Republic of Lucca - An independent republic in Tuscany; one of the smallest and least powerful of the major Italian States. In 1494 it was alternately governed by six Gonfaloniers of Justice: Giovan Battista Malpigli, Alessandro Diodati, Iacopo Stiatta, Giovanni Balbani, Girolamo Liena and Benedetto Buonvisi.
15. Republic of Florence - In 1494 Piero the Unfortunate, a member of the ruling House of Medici, was exiled and Florence came under the rule of Girolamo Savonarola, a Dominican friar who opposed the excesses of Renaissance culture and supported religious reform. Savonarola supported the French invasion during the Italian Wars, because he regarded it as divine retribution by God intended to punish Florence and bring about the spiritual reform of Italy. At this time the Capitanate of Fivizzano was a direct dependency of Florence.
16. Republic of Siena - In 1494 it was ruled by Pandolfo Petrucci, of the House of Petrucci, who was an ally of the Medici family. Its territory corresponded to the southern third of Tuscany. Its centuries-old independence came to an end only six decades later when it was annexed to the Duchy of Florence (later reenamed Grand Duchy of Tuscany).
17. Papal States - The Pope obtained temporal power between 752-756 AD and thereafter became both a religious and secular ruler; the Bishop of Rome became ex officio sovereign ruler of the Papal States. In 1494 it was ruled by Pope Alexander VI, of the House of Borgia, who initially encouraged but later opposed the French invasion during the Italian Wars. The possessions and territories of the Papal States were initially small, but gradually expanded over the centuries. By 1494 it was one of the largest and most influential of the Italian States; its fiefs and vassals included the Duchy of Urbino, the Lordships of Perugia, Bologna, Cesena and Forli, the cities of Ancona, Benevento, Pontecorvo and others.
18. Kingdom of Naples - Officially known as the Kingdom of Sicily, but referred to as the Kingdom of Naples to distinguish the it from the other Kingdom of Sicily. The largest State on the Italian peninsula. In 1494 it was ruled by Alfonso II, King of Naples, but in the same year the King of France invaded Italy to claim the throne for himself, thereby igniting the Italian Wars.
19. Kingdom of Sicily - In 1494 it was ruled by Ferdinand II, King of Aragon. Previously ruled as an independent kingdom (1130-1409), but then united in dynastic union to the Crown of Aragon as an autonomous and separate kingdom after 1409. Sicily was not part of the Kingdom of Aragon, but both kingdoms were ruled by the same monarch. Malta was part of Sicily from 1091 to 1530.
20. Kingdom of Sardinia - In 1494 it was ruled by Ferdinand II, King of Aragon. Originally called the Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica (1324-1479), since 1324 it was united in dynastic union to the Crown of Aragon as an autonomous and separate kingdom. That is to say, Sardinia was not part of the Kingdom of Aragon, but both kingdoms were ruled by the same monarch. For most of the 14th and 15th centuries Aragonese power in Sardinia was tenuous and incomplete, but by 1494 the control over the whole island was complete and stable.
21. Minor Italian States - There were also several micro-states in Italy during this period, such as the Principality of Monaco, Republic of San Marino, Republic of Noli, Republic of Cospaia, Lordship of Piombino, Lordship of Rimini, County of Tenda and several other minor states.
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